Friday, December 27, 2019

Osmolarity and Osmolality in Chemistry

Osmolarity and osmolality are units of solute concentration that are often used in reference to biochemistry and body fluids. While any polar solvent could be used, these units are used almost exclusively for aqueous (water) solutions. Learn what osmolarity and osmolality are and how to express them. Osmoles Both osmolarity and osmolality are defined in terms of osmoles. An osmole is a unit of measurement that describes the number of moles of a compound that contribute to the osmotic pressure of a chemical solution. The osmole is related to osmosis and is used in reference to a solution where osmotic pressure is important, such as blood and urine. Osmolarity Osmolarity is defined as the number of osmoles of solute per liter (L) of a solution. It is expressed in terms of osmol/L or Osm/L. Osmolarity depends on the number of particles in a chemical solution, but not on the identity of those molecules or ions. Sample Osmolarity Calculations A 1 mol/L NaCl solution has an osmolarity of 2 osmol/L. A mole of NaCl dissociates fully in water to yield  two moles  of particles: Na  ions and Cl-  ions. Each mole of NaCl becomes two osmoles in solution. A 1 M solution of sodium sulfate, Na2SO4, dissociates into 2 sodium ions and 1 sulfate anion, so each mole of sodium sulfate becomes 3 osmoles in solution (3 Osm). To find the osmolarity of a 0.3% NaCl solution, you first calculate the molarity of the salt solution and then convert the molarity to osmolarity. Convert percent to molarity:0.03 % 3 grams / 100 ml 3 grams / 0.1 L 30 g/Lmolarity NaCl moles / liter (30 g/L) x (1 mol / molecular weight of NaCl) Look up the atomic weights of Na and Cl on the periodic table and add the together to get the molecular weight. Na is 22.99 g and Cl is 35.45 g, so the molecular weight of NaCl is 22.99 35.45, which is 58.44 grams per mole. Plugging this in: molarity of the 3% salt solution (30 g/L) / (58.44 g/mol)molarity 0.51 M You know there are 2 osmoles of NaCl per mole, so: osmolarity of 3% NaCl molarity x 2osmolarity 0.51 x 2osmolarity 1.03 Osm Osmolality Osmolality is defined as the number of osmoles of solute per kilogram of solvent. It is expressed in terms of osmol/kg or Osm/kg. When the solvent is water, osmolarity and osmolality may be nearly the same under ordinary conditions, since the approximate density of water is 1 g/ml or 1 kg/L. The value changes as the temperature changes (e.g., the density of water at 100 C is 0.9974 kg/L). When to Use Osmolarity vs Osmolality Osmolality is convenient to use because the amount of solvent remains constant, regardless of changes in temperature and pressure. While osmolarity is easy to calculate, its less difficult to determine because the volume of a solution changes according to temperature and pressure. Osmolarity is most commonly used when all measurements are made at a constant temperature and pressure. Note a 1 molar (M) solution will usually have a higher concentration of solute than a 1 molal solution because solute accounts for some of the space in the solution volume.

Thursday, December 19, 2019

Mankiw Chapter 15 - 3536 Words

Chapter 15 – Mankiw SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS: Quick Quizzes 1. A market might have a monopoly because: (1) a key resource is owned by a single firm; (2) the government gives a single firm the exclusive right to produce some good; or (3) the costs of production make a single producer more efficient than a large number of producers. Examples of monopolies include: (1) the water producer in a small town, who owns a key resource, the one well in town; (2) a pharmaceutical company that is given a patent on a new drug by the government; and (3) a bridge, which is a natural monopoly because (if the bridge is uncongested) having just one bridge is efficient. Many other examples are possible. 2. A monopolist chooses the amount of output to†¦show more content†¦The fact that it sells a greater quantity increases the firm’s revenue, but the decline in price decreases the firm’s revenue. The overall effect depends on the price elasticity of demand. If demand is inelastic, marginal revenue will be negative. 4. Figure 1 shows the demand, marginal-revenue, average-total-cost, and marginal-cost curves for a monopolist. The intersection of the marginal-revenue and marginal-cost curves determines the profit-maximizing level of output, Qm. The profit-maximizing price, Pm can be found using the demand curve. Profit is shown as the rectangular area with a height of (PM – ATCM) and a base of QM. Figure 1 5. The level of output that maximizes total surplus in Figure 1 is where the demand curve intersects the marginal-cost curve, Qc. The deadweight loss from monopoly is the triangular area between Qc and Qm that is above the marginal-cost curve and below the demand curve. Chapter 15/Monopoly 281 It represents deadweight loss, because society loses total surplus because of the monopoly. The deadweight loss is equal to the value of the good (measured by the height of the demand curve) less the cost of production (given by the height of the marginal-cost curve), for the quantities between Qm and Qc. 6. One example of price discrimination is in publishing books. Publishers charge a muchShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Buffett Rule and Tax Reform949 Words   |  4 Pagesheritage.org/2011/12/04/chart-of-the-week-runaway-spending-not-low-tax-revenue-fueling-deficits/ Buffett, Warren. â€Å"Stop Coddling the Super-Rich,† The New York Times, 08-14-2011. Accessed 04-20- 2012. Available at: https:// www.nytimes.com/2011/08/15/opinion/stop-coddling-the-super-rich.html Carroll, Robert, Douglas Holtz-Eakin, Mark Rider, and Harvey Rosen (2000) â€Å"Income Taxes and Entrepreneurs Use of Labor,† Journal of Labor Economics, 18 (2), April pp. 324-55, Cited in: http://www.americanRead MoreThe Grizzly Bear Lodge4225 Words   |  17 PagesDue Wednesday, Sept. 8th 11:30pm We might reach Chapter 5 by end of this week, but HW #2 will only contain questions from Chapter 4. THE MARKET FORCES OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND 0 CHAPTER... ch05_micro2302_002_fall2010 Texas Aamp;M gt;gt; ECON gt;gt; 2302 (Fall, 2010) CHAPTER 5 Elasticity and its Application Microeconomics PRINCIPLES OF N. Gregory Mankiw 2010 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, all rights reserved 2010 update In this chapter, look for the answers to these questions: What isRead MoreMicroeconomic Theory Essay1757 Words   |  8 Pageson overlapping issues between both fields. Microeconomics takes a â€Å"bottom up† approach, starting with the consumer. Macroeconomics takes a â€Å"top down† approach, starting with the government. There are four principals of individual decision making (Mankiw 2007). These are: people face trade-offs, the cost of something is what you give up to get it, rational people think at the margin and people respond to incentives. People face trade-offs is the decision a person must make prior to completingRead MoreSupply and Demand- a Case Study Milk Price1909 Words   |  8 Pagesgoods. In periods of depression, the consumer’s income decreases leads to an increase of quantity demanded for inferior goods because their purchasing power is low. If the entrepreneur understands that inferior goods have negative income elasticity (Mankiw, 2007), he would probably switch his business to sell inferior goods. For example, a used-car seller who might sell branded luxury cars during prosperity periods. However, during depression periods, he might switch to sell low-cost cars in order toRead MoreAnalysis of an Excise Duty: the Policy of Tobacco Taxes in Germany4204 Words   |  17 Page s........ V Figure 2: Supply, Demand and Equilibrium Price ..........................................VI Figure 3: Effect of tax on supply and demand (derived from Mankiw 2008, 168) ...............................................................................................................XI Figure 4: Laffer curve (derived from Mankiw 2008, 168) .............................XIII III Daniel Strà ¶bel - Analysis of an excise duty: The policy of tobacco taxes in Germany 1 Introduction WhenRead MoreTen Principles of Economics2000 Words   |  8 PagesCHAPTER 1 In this chapter, look for the answers to these questions: What kinds of questions does economics address? What are the principles of how people make decisions? What are the principles of how people interact? What are the principles of how the economy as a whole works? Ten Principles of Economics Macroeconomics N. Gregory Mankiw Premium PowerPoint Slides by Ron Cronovich  © 2009 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning, all rights reserved PRINCIPLES OF 1 What Economics Is All AboutRead MoreThe Case For Continued Agricultural Trade Liberalization1403 Words   |  6 Pageswhen the subject in question is free trade. Despite near unanimity among economists as to the benefits of free trade, the general public remains skeptical and politicians regularly play to voters’ fear about the dangers of trade to garner support (Mankiw, 2015). Nowhere have protectionist tendencies been more evident than in agriculture. Across developed nations, trade barriers for agricultural commodities remain higher than those for manufactured goods. For example, the World Trade Organization (WTO)Read MorePrinciples of Microeconomics Fifth Canadian Edition20085 Words   |  81 PagesA G U I D E D T O U R PART ONE: INTRODUCTION Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Ten Principles of Economics Thinking Like an Economist Interdependence and the Gains from Trade The study of economics is guided by a few big ideas. Economists view the world as both scientists and policymakers. The theory of comparative advantage explains how people benefit from economic interdependence. PART TWO: SUPPLY AND DEMAND I: HOW MARKETS WORK Chapter 4 The Market Forces of Supply and Demand ElasticityRead MoreGrowth and Development2100 Words   |  9 Pageselaborates the point that the countries with higher saving and investment rates are tend to be richer and countries that have high population growth rate are tend to be poorer. [pic] Source: Solow model, an increase in population growth rate Mankiw, Romer and Weil (1992), empirical study of Solow model provides an empirical evidence of Solow model; it concludes that, income lowers when population growth is high because available capital will distribute thinly to the population. One childRead Moreprinciples of microeconomics practice exam#3 with answer keys2540 Words   |  11 Pages$200. c. $500. b. $300. d. $700. ____ 14. Producer surplus directly measures a. the well-being of society as a whole. b. the well-being of buyers and sellers. c. the well-being of sellers. d. sellers’ willingness to sell. ____ 15. Suppose the demand for peaches decreases. What will happen to producer surplus in the market for peaches? a. It increases. b. It decreases. c. It remains unchanged. d. It may increase, decrease, or remain unchanged. ____ 16. Which of the

Tuesday, December 10, 2019

Dimensional Printing Of Ceramic Scaffolds †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Dimensional Printing Of Ceramic Scaffolds? Answer: Introducation This paper seeks to comprehend the information behind the 3D printing activities and processes. The 3D printing has a history from the early centuries in Greece where 3D objects were made similarly to each other. The printing involves the modelling and design, development in the software and finally machining. There is a business side to the same concerned on the return on investment and increase in the number of sales. It is considered as additive manufacturing that is due to the fact that instead of removing material to create a part or the entire design model (Hobson, 2012). The design undergoes prototyping of specialized parts and considers other future applications. The 3D printing technique solves some of the shortcomings of the traditional machining technologies used in production at industrial or manufacturing level. 3D printable models are generated using the computer aided design software through a three-dimensional scanner or from an ordinary cardinal camera or software. The blue-collar modelling process of fixing geometric data for three-dimensional mainframe graphics is analogous to the physical molding of objects (Fratzl, 2007). In 3D printing, there is an additive industrial course that creates the three-dimensional objects from the 3D digital information provided. The three-dimensional digital models are sliced into many 2D cross-sections. These sectional parts are then printed out on top of each other. There are other 3D printers that are subtractive manufacturing processes such as the CNC and milling processes(Lipson Kurman, 2013). These processes are considered a separate group and are referred to as the machining processes. There are different kinds of processes involved in the production of 3D materials, Powder based processes Solid based processes Paper-based processes Liquid-based processes Initially, one starts with the three-dimensional models that are at the design stage. The information is input in the three-dimensional software or an object is scanned with the 3D scanner, if one wants to fabricate a real-life object or download an actual file (Anderson, 2012). The larger set of folks, still have qualms about 3D printing. Such doubt is attributed to the fact that it still has many unexplored horizons. Similarly, the technology has newly raised concerns about safety and issues dealing with piracy.The 3D printing software groups the model into many 3D cross-sections. As the world keeps evolving, new technologies begin emerging. But only a few new technologies, change the world completely and deeply impact peoples lives(Kaur, 2012) When the 3D model is sliced, the data is directed to a 3D printer which reconstructs the object one layer atop each other. The 3D printers move along the three-axis on the X, Y, Z coordinates. This is done using the FDM printer (Kamrani, 2006). One of the most significant uses for 3D printing is inside the medical industry(Greenemeier, 2013). In the medical sphere, the medical practitioners are able to make a replica of the parts from the patients bodies when the need to be operated on. The reproduction of the 3D printing ideas makes it possible to make a part from the software in just a couple of hours.The idea of 3D printing has occurred for centuries with an origin in Greece. The 3D printing or rapid prototyping is used in engineering to create models and prototypes much faster. The traditional manufacturing processes such as the injection molding, are cheaper per unit they are expensive and time consuming to setup or tooling and so a quick alternative was sought (Berman, 2012). The 3D printed parts and the open source GNU software licensing it allowed individual users to drive innovations. Up until the year 2005, the 3D printing was quite expensive and, for the better part, it is available only for the manufacturing industry. There was a RepRap project conducted by Adrian Bowyer in the year 2005 that was a collaborative challenge to create a self-replicating machine. The project made the 3D printing use cheaper technology, adopt a patent expiration strategy, and was made open source (D'Aveni, 2013). The traditional casting method takes four to five months. One of their current projects involves implementing a 3D printer inside future shuttles in order to easily replace broken parts and build objects that might be needed in outer space(Seitz, et al., 2005). They have also begun testing on 3D-printed rocket injectors.The creating 3D models are made using Computer Aided Design. There are solid modelers and mesh modelers are meant to model in solids. They are advantageous for 3D printing since models will be manifold and all models are exported to meshes before printing. The parametric modelers are using a set of rules to define an object. It is used in the medical and aerospace industry and the metal parts are modelled. The 3D printing faces a number of challenges include, Limited and high cost of materials Unreliability of machines (20% reject rate) Challenges scaling up technology Speed and IP Environmental concerns, surface finish, resolution Mechanical properties, post processing, and still only making shapes. There are seven different types of 3D printing such as the substantial extrusion (FDM) as most public technology and desktop replicas are widespread. There is the material jetting which provides more professional prototypes, multi-materials, and common in design firms. The binder jetting is the visual prototypes, tooling, investment casting for the larger platforms. Different research cases have shown that it is actually possible to have printouts of a wide range of materials. There is a lot of emerging use of the print technology in the automobile and medical spheres. The sheet lamination has reams of paper act as the base materials, low strength, and opportunities for decent resolution color. The Vat Polymerization is the SLA is the oldest 3D printing technology, high resolution but relatively, and low strength parts, and the new desktop versions are available. The print technology has the ability to remove several materials from the system or model being designed. Powder based system (SLS) has a wider range of materials, very strength, functional parts, base materials is in powder form and it is still at the industrial scale. Directed Energy deposition uses the electron Beam melting to perform the modelling and printing. When an industry performs customized production of materials, it is not cost effective to use an industrial complex for production. The materials or different designs can be produced separately using the 3D printers to ensure that the system generates a customized product. The usage is common for vintage cars and custom-made vehicles that are rare and their spare parts are not obtained on a large scale. The use of 3D printing has increased the component functionality. A lot of factors need to be considered such as the thermal constraint to ensure that the high thermal conductivity of a structure is maintained and the print ing process does not destroy a component. The system of 3D printing has a number of merits such as, The product formation is currently the main use of 3D printing technology. The surgeons and dentists are using the 3D printers to print sections of the body before doing the complex surgeries. The machine constructs body parts such as the grafts for the patients who have been through the traumatic injuries. These are used to create replacement organs such as tooth or jaw sections. The NASA engineers have advanced the technology in the aerospace applications. The team at NASA uses the Fused Deposition Modelling to perform additive manufacturing of the very complex shapes and durable enough systems or structures. In aerospace engineering, some of the parts of the aircrafts require the full model before assembly. The architects are also great users of the 3D printing. For a long time, architects have been using blue print plans to show designs but with the advent of 3D printers, the architects can use them to illustrate the design to their clients Artists can demonstrate their objects and ideas that are incredible and yet difficult and expensive to achieve using the current concepts with the traditional processes. The 3D printers save the organization a lot of time, effort, and the system reduces errors that are encountered when generating 3D objects using traditional means. Evalution There are variations of 3D printing technology such as the stereolithographic, FDM, and powdered Bed. The UV light is used to harden photosensitive photopolymers and resins. There are fused deposition modelling and plastic jet printing has a melted plastic filament pushed through a nozzle or an extruder. The common plastics are the ABS and the PLA. A granular bed of materials is selectively fused together by a laser. There are various materials such as metal alloys, metal powders, thermoplastics, and ceramic powders. On the economic scale, the additive manufacturing is currently a $2.2 billion industry globally. The market is expected to triple by the 2018 to about $6 billion. The injection molding market expected to be $252 billion in 2018. People use the 3D printing for prototyping, low volume manufacturing, tooling, consumer products, customization and personalization, art and design, education, and medical implementation. The three-dimensional modelling has design freedom and wha t you design is what you print. The 3D printers are able to achieve smoother and finer finishes than the machining techniques done by millers and lathe machines or even the CNC machines. The printer can produce products with very thick or thin measurements exactly as designed by the engineers or architects. The products are able to capture the look or feel of the future products. Conclusion In a nutshell,the 3D printing is still being developed and the literature review shows that there are many benefits and caveats with regards to its utilization. There are great accomplishments with regards to the development of the 3D printing especially in the medical and construction field. For now, it is something that has to be further looked into in order to fully understand its extents whether good or bad. There is need to have more investment in the research and development of improved 3D technology versions. The propulsion in 3D printing enables the different organizations to get value for their investments. There is a better future for the 3D printers as more industries are embracing the technology and it is becoming more affordable as the technology evolves. One of the greatest areas to evolve is the medical sphere where the medics are now generating even artificial bone structure for surgery purposes and implants. References Anderson, C., 2012. The new MakerBot Replicatior might just change your world. Wired Magazine, [online]. Available at: https://www.wired.com/design/2012/09/how-makerbots-replicator2-will-launch-era-of-desktop-manufacturing/ [Accessed 4 November 2012] Aron, J., 2012. 3D printers tell you when your design will fail. New Scientist Magazine, [online]. Available at: https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21528785.800-3d-printers-tell-you-when-your-design-will-fail.html [Accessed 4 November 2012] Berman, B., 2012. 3D Printing: The New Industrial Revolution. Business Horizons, 55(2), pp.155-162 Brooks, M., 2012. 3D printing is enough to make anyone lose their cool. New Statesman, [online]. Available at: https://www.newstatesman.com/michael-brooks/2012/10/3d-printing-enough-make-anyone-lose-their-cool [Accessed 4 November 2012] D'Aveni, R., 2013. 3-D Printing Will Change the World - Harvard Business Review. [Online] Available at: https://hbr.org/2013/03/3-d-printing-will-change-the-world/ Flaherty, J., 2012. Formlabs creates a low-cost, light-based 3D printer. Wired, [online]. Available at: https://www.wired.com/design/2012/09/formlabs-creates-a-low-cost-light-based-3-d-printer/ [Accessed 4 November 2012] Fratzl, P., Weinkamer, R., 2007. Nature's Hierarchical Materials. Progress in Materials Science, 52, pp.12631334 Greenemeier, L., 2013. To print the Impossible: 3D Printing. Scientific American , 308(5), pp. 44-47. Gibson, I., Rosen, D. W., Stucker, B., 2010. Additive Manufacturing: Rapid Prototyping to Direct Digital Manufacturing. London: Springer Heathcote, E., Roux, C., Things ain't what they used to be... Financial Times, [online]. Available at: https://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/b2a9fa26-19f3-11e2-a179-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2AlgrPOc6 [Accessed 4 November 2012] Hobson, R., 2012. Manufacturing dead? Not for long. We are all 3D printers now. London Loves Business, [online]. Available at: https://www.londonlovesbusiness.com/business-news/tech/manufacturing-dead-not-for-long-we-are-all-3d-printers-now/3119.article [Accessed 4 November 2012] Kamrani, A., Abouel, E., 2006. Rapid Prototyping: theory and practice. New York: Springer Kaur, S., 2012. How is "Internet of the 3D Printed Products" Going to affect our lives?. IETE Technical Review, 29(5), pp. 360-364. Lipson, H. Kurman, M., 2013. Fabricated: the new world of 3D printing. Indianapolis, Indiana: John Wiley Sons. Seitz, H. et al., 2005. Three-Dimensional printing of porous ceramic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Journal of Biomedical.

Tuesday, December 3, 2019

Religion and Death in Pompeii and Herculaneum free essay sample

Using the following sources and your own knowledge, discuss the importance of religion and death in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Religion and death was an important part of everyday life in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Romans, like the Greeks and Egyptians were polytheists who worshipped a variety of gods. This is evident in the temples, household shrines, cults and tombs that were found in the cities. Proper worship of the gods was believed to ensure peace, fertility and prosperity. All citizens were expected to be involved in religious rituals as they were believed to be necessary to win the favour of the gods. The Roman State Cult was centred on the worship of the gods Jupiter, the protector of the state, Juno, protector of women and Minerva, patroness of craftsmen. From the time of Augustus, an imperial cult developed under the influence of Greek hero cults and concepts of divine kingship. The emperor was worshipped at both Pompeii and Herculaneum and Augustales, who were the priests of Augustus, were appointed to administer the cult. We will write a custom essay sample on Religion and Death in Pompeii and Herculaneum or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page As the empire grew, Romans were exposed to a variety a foreign cults introduced by traders, soldiers, migrating craftsmen and slaves. The cult of Isis was popular among Pompeians as she was the protector of women and children. At the Temple of Isis, there were daily prayers and rituals and throughout the year there were great festivals commemorating Isis rescue and restoration of Osiris. In both Pompeii and Herculaneum, evidence has been uncovered of the cult of Sabazius, a god of from Trace (northern Greece) and Asia Minor. Objects associated with the cult were uncovered in Pompeii which included two hands holding a figure of Sabazius. Not only were gods worshipped at temples, but the lares, who were the household gods, were also idolised because they were associated with places of crossing or entry. The shrine of the lares was often placed in the entry of the house, in the atrium. Each day the paterfamilias was responsible for leading the household prayers and for carrying out rituals to ensure the protection of the spirits. Offerings of incense flowers, fruits and special cakes were made at the shrines. As well as their worship of the gods, the Romans believed that the deceased entered into a shadowy existence in the underworld after death. Those who were happy successfully made the journey from the land living to the land of the dead. Many graves were dedicated both to the individual person buried and more generally to the spirits of the dead. At Pompeii, tombs were located outside the city walls, as required by the Roman law. The dead were usually cremated. The ashes were placed in an urn which was then placed inside the tomb or buried underground i the sacred enclosure within the tomb. Family rites were performed before the burial, but the paterfamilias then had the responsibility to ensure that the deceased received proper burial rites. Funeral processions included musicians and professional mourners. Family members wore wax masks of the ancestors s so that the protectors of the family line were present, thus retaining the link between the living and the dead. The importance of religion and death is shown throughout the various gods and goddesses, cults and tombs in Pompeii and Herculaneum. They all show how the cities have changed and adapted their styles of worship over many years.